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Showing posts with label Map Relief Reading Selections. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Map Relief Reading Selections. Show all posts

Thursday, September 29, 2016

Maps, LA Times, May 26, 1999

Maps are more than a means for locating places throughout the world. Meteorologists use maps in forecasting weather and geologists use them in predicting earthquakes. There are skills that can help you become a more effective map reader. Explore the world through map-making or cartography by using the direct links on The Times' Launch Point Web site: http://www.latimes.com/launchpoint/
Here are the best sites for getting your schoolwork done or for just having fun.
Level 1
Mapmaker, Mapmaker, Make Me a Map: How do mapmakers take a three-dimensional object like the Earth and represent it using a two-dimensional object like paper? They use different systems of projection, which means that some dimensions are in perspective while others are distorted. Learn how different types of maps are made and find out what it takes to be a cartographer.
http://www.utenn.edu/uwa/vpps/ur/ut2kids/maps/map.html
Weather Maps: Weather maps summarize what is going on in the atmosphere at a certain location and altitude. Learn about the symbols on a weather map and find out how meterologists use these maps to predict the weather.
http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/edu/lessons/lesson2.html
Color Landform Atlas of the United States: Relief maps show elevation by color. View the 50 states through a variety of perspectives, from relief and satellite maps to historical maps from the 1890s.
http://fermi.jhuapl.edu/states/states.html
Level 2
Learning About Maps: Learn about the concepts of latitude and longitude, find out how undersea maps are made and used, and try some mapping activities.
http://www.punaridge.org/doc/teacher/maps/Default.htm
Cartography: The Art of Making Maps, the Science of Where You Are: Scientists use maps from different perspectives for many uses. Explore Puget Sound using satellite maps, topographic maps and weather maps and discover a variety of uses for maps.
http://inspire.ospi.wednet.edu:8001/curric/land/geograph/carto/puget.html
National Geographic Xpeditions: Whether it's a state, province, country or continent you want to view, use this interactive collection of more than 600 maps to get a clearer picture of the world.
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/main.html?STST=atlas
Level 3
Mathematics of Cartography: What Are Maps? Maps can be used to represent anything that can be spatially conceived. Learn more about different kinds of maps, read about the history of cartography and discover the mathematics behind mapping, including some fun map challenges.
http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/pres/map
Finding Your Way With Map and Compass: Maps are drawn to scale, which means that the distance between points on a map is in mathematical proportion to the actual distance depicted. Learn what the symbols mean on a topographic map and how to use one with a compass to get your bearings.
http://info.er.usgs.gov/fact-sheets/finding-your-way/finding-your-way.html
The Map Room: Early Polynesians created stick charts to mark navigational routes between islands while the ancient Babylonians made durable maps from clay tablets. View photos of the first maps and measuring devices, develop your map-reading skills by learning about scale and projection, and enjoy an assortment of maps and fun map facts.
http://www.geosys.com/cgi-bin/genobject/maproom/tig5e6
Launch Point is produced by the UC Irvine department of education, which reviews each site for appropriateness and quality. Even so, parents should supervise their children's use of the Internet. This column was designed by Bret M. Lynes and Anna Manring.
EXPLORER'S QUEST
The answer to this Internet quiz can be found in the sites at right.
If one inch represents one mile on a map, what is the map's scale?
CLUE: See Finding Your Way With Map and Compass
Find What You Need to Know: Have a project on California history? Need help doing a math problem? Launch Point now covers more than 80 topics for getting your schoolwork done. Go to http://www.latimes.com/launchpoint/ for the full list of subjects and links to the best Internet sites.
source link here. 

Tuesday, September 13, 2016

An Excerpt from the book All The Light We Cannot See by Anthony Doer



Zero
7 August 1944
Leaflets
At dusk they pour from the sky. They blow across the ramparts, turn cartwheels over rooftops, flutter into the ravines between houses. Entire streets swirl with them, flashing white against the cobbles. Urgent message to the inhabitants of this town, they say. Depart immediately to open country.
The tide climbs. The moon hangs small and yellow and gibbous. On the rooftops of beachfront hotels to the east, and in the gardens behind them, a half-dozen American artillery units drop incendiary rounds into the mouths of mortars.

Bombers
They cross the Channel at midnight. There are twelve and they are named for songs: Stardust and Stormy Weather and In the Mood and Pistol-Packin’ Mama. The sea glides along far below, spattered with the countless chevrons of whitecaps. Soon enough, the navigators can discern the low moonlit lumps of islands ranged along the horizon.
France.
Intercoms crackle. Deliberately, almost lazily, the bombers shed altitude. Threads of red light ascend from anti-air emplacements up and down the coast. Dark, ruined ships appear, scuttled or destroyed, one with its bow shorn away, a second flickering as it burns. On an outermost island, panicked sheep run zigzagging between rocks.
Inside each airplane, a bombardier peers through an aiming window and counts to twenty. Four five six seven. To the bombardiers, the walled city on its granite headland, drawing ever closer, looks like an unholy tooth, something black and dangerous, a final abscess to be lanced away.

The Girl
In a corner of the city, inside a tall, narrow house at Number 4 rue Vauborel, on the sixth and highest floor, a sightless sixteen-year-old named Marie-Laure LeBlanc kneels over a low table covered entirely with a model. The model is a miniature of the city she kneels within, and contains scale replicas of the hundreds of houses and shops and hotels within its walls. There’s the cathedral with its perforated spire, and the bulky old Château de Saint-Malo, and row after row of seaside mansions studded with chimneys. A slender wooden jetty arcs out from a beach called the Plage du Môle; a delicate, reticulated atrium vaults over the seafood market; minute benches, the smallest no larger than apple seeds, dot the tiny public squares.
Marie-Laure runs her fingertips along the centimeter-wide parapet crowning the ramparts, drawing an uneven star shape around the entire model. She finds the opening atop the walls where four ceremonial cannons point to sea. “Bastion de la Hollande,” she whispers, and her fingers walk down a little staircase. “Rue des Cordiers. Rue Jacques Cartier.”
In a corner of the room stand two galvanized buckets filled to the rim with water. Fill them up, her great-uncle has taught her, whenever you can. The bathtub on the third floor too. Who knows when the water will go out again.
Her fingers travel back to the cathedral spire. South to the Gate of Dinan. All evening she has been marching her fingers around the model, waiting for her great-uncle Etienne, who owns this house, who went out the previous night while she slept, and who has not returned. And now it is night again, another revolution of the clock, and the whole block is quiet, and she cannot sleep.
She can hear the bombers when they are three miles away. A mounting static. The hum inside a seashell.
When she opens the bedroom window, the noise of the airplanes becomes louder. Otherwise, the night is dreadfully silent: no engines, no voices, no clatter. No sirens. No footfalls on the cobbles. Not even gulls. Just a high tide, one block away and six stories below, lapping at the base of the city walls.
And something else.
Something rattling softly, very close. She eases open the left-hand shutter and runs her fingers up the slats of the right. A sheet of paper has lodged there.
She holds it to her nose. It smells of fresh ink. Gasoline, maybe. The paper is crisp; it has not been outside long
.
Marie-Laure hesitates at the window in her stocking feet, her bedroom behind her, seashells arranged along the top of the armoire, pebbles along the baseboards. Her cane stands in the corner; her big Braille novel waits facedown on the bed. The drone of the airplanes grows.

The Boy
Five streets to the north, a white-haired eighteen-year-old German private named Werner Pfennig wakes to a faint staccato hum. Little more than a purr. Flies tapping at a far-off windowpane.
Where is he? The sweet, slightly chemical scent of gun oil; the raw wood of newly constructed shell crates; the mothballed odor of old bedspreads—he’s in the hotel. Of course. L’hôtel des Abeilles, the Hotel of Bees.
Still night. Still early.
From the direction of the sea come whistles and booms; flak is going up.
An anti-air corporal hurries down the corridor, heading for the stairwell. “Get to the cellar,” he calls over his shoulder, and Werner switches on his field light, rolls his blanket into his duffel, and starts down the hall.
Not so long ago, the Hotel of Bees was a cheerful address, with bright blue shutters on its facade and oysters on ice in its café and Breton waiters in bow ties polishing glasses behind its bar. It offered twenty-one guest rooms, commanding sea views, and a lobby fireplace as big as a truck. Parisians on weekend holidays would drink aperitifs here, and before them the occasional emissary from the republic—ministers and vice ministers and abbots and admirals—and in the centuries before them, windburned corsairs: killers, plunderers, raiders, seamen.
Before that, before it was ever a hotel at all, five full centuries ago, it was the home of a wealthy privateer who gave up raiding ships to study bees in the pastures outside Saint-Malo, scribbling in notebooks and eating honey straight from combs. The crests above the door lintels still have bumblebees carved into the oak; the ivy-covered fountain in the courtyard is shaped like a hive. Werner’s favorites are five faded frescoes on the ceilings of the grandest upper rooms, where bees as big as children float against blue backdrops, big lazy drones and workers with diaphanous wings—where, above a hexagonal bathtub, a single nine-foot-long queen, with multiple eyes and a golden-furred abdomen, curls across the ceiling.
Over the past four weeks, the hotel has become something else: a fortress. A detachment of Austrian anti-airmen has boarded up every window, overturned every bed. They’ve reinforced the entrance, packed the stairwells with crates of artillery shells. The hotel’s fourth floor, where garden rooms with French balconies open directly onto the ramparts, has become home to an aging high-velocity anti-air gun called an 88 that can fire twenty-one-and-a-half-pound shells nine miles.
Her Majesty, the Austrians call their cannon, and for the past week these men have tended to it the way worker bees might tend to a queen. They’ve fed her oils, repainted her barrels, lubricated her wheels; they’ve arranged sandbags at her feet like offerings.
The royal acht acht, a deathly monarch meant to protect them all.
Werner is in the stairwell, halfway to the ground floor, when the 88 fires twice in quick succession. It’s the first time he’s heard the gun at such close range, and it sounds as if the top half of the hotel has torn off. He stumbles and throws his arms over his ears. The walls reverberate all the way down into the foundation, then back up.
Werner can hear the Austrians two floors up scrambling, reloading, and the receding screams of both shells as they hurtle above the ocean, already two or three miles away. One of the soldiers, he realizes, is singing. Or maybe it is more than one. Maybe they are all singing. Eight Luftwaffe men, none of whom will survive the hour, singing a love song to their queen.
Werner chases the beam of his field light through the lobby. The big gun detonates a third time, and glass shatters somewhere close by, and torrents of soot rattle down the chimney, and the walls of the hotel toll like a struck bell. Werner worries that the sound will knock the teeth from his gums.
He drags open the cellar door and pauses a moment, vision swimming. “This is it?” he asks. “They’re really coming?”
But who is there to answer?

Saint-Malo
Up and down the lanes, the last unevacuated townspeople wake, groan, sigh. Spinsters, prostitutes, men over sixty. Procrastinators, collaborators, disbelievers, drunks. Nuns of every order. The poor. The stubborn. The blind.
Some hurry to bomb shelters. Some tell themselves it is merely a drill. Some linger to grab a blanket or a prayer book or a deck of playing cards.
D-day was two months ago. Cherbourg has been liberated, Caen liberated, Rennes too. Half of western France is free. In the east, the Soviets have retaken Minsk; the Polish Home Army is revolting in Warsaw; a few newspapers have become bold enough to suggest that the tide has turned.
But not here. Not this last citadel at the edge of the continent, this final German strongpoint on the Breton coast.
Here, people whisper, the Germans have renovated two kilometers of subterranean corridors under the medieval walls; they have built new defenses, new conduits, new escape routes, underground complexes of bewildering intricacy. Beneath the peninsular fort of La Cité, across the river from the old city, there are rooms of bandages, rooms of ammunition, even an underground hospital, or so it is believed. There is air-conditioning, a two-hundred-thousand-liter water tank, a direct line to Berlin. There are flame-throwing booby traps, a net of pillboxes with periscopic sights; they have stockpiled enough ordnance to spray shells into the sea all day, every day, for a year.
Here, they whisper, are a thousand Germans ready to die. Or five thousand. Maybe more.
Saint-Malo: Water surrounds the city on four sides. Its link to the rest of France is tenuous: a causeway, a bridge, a spit of sand. We are Malouins first, say the people of Saint-Malo. Bretons next. French if there’s anything left over.
In stormy light, its granite glows blue. At the highest tides, the sea creeps into basements at the very center of town. At the lowest tides, the barnacled ribs of a thousand shipwrecks stick out above the sea.
For three thousand years, this little promontory has known sieges.
But never like this.
A grandmother lifts a fussy toddler to her chest. A drunk, urinating in an alley outside Saint-Servan, a mile away, plucks a sheet of paper from a hedge. Urgent message to the inhabitants of this town, it says. Depart immediately to open country.
Anti-air batteries flash on the outer islands, and the big German guns inside the old city send another round of shells howling over the sea, and three hundred and eighty Frenchmen imprisoned on an island fortress called National, a quarter mile off the beach, huddle in a moonlit courtyard peering up.
Four years of occupation, and the roar of oncoming bombers is the roar of what? Deliverance? Extirpation?
The clack-clack of small-arms fire. The gravelly snare drums of flak. A dozen pigeons roosting on the cathedral spire cataract down its length and wheel out over the sea.

Number 4 rue Vauborel
Marie-Laure LeBlanc stands alone in her bedroom smelling a leaflet she cannot read. Sirens wail. She closes the shutters and relatches the window. Every second the airplanes draw closer; every second is a second lost. She should be rushing downstairs. She should be making for the corner of the kitchen where a little trapdoor opens into a cellar full of dust and mouse-chewed rugs and ancient trunks long unopened.
Instead she returns to the table at the foot of the bed and kneels beside the model of the city.
Again her fingers find the outer ramparts, the Bastion de la Hollande, the little staircase leading down. In this window, right here, in the real city, a woman beats her rugs every Sunday. From this window here, a boy once yelled, Watch where you’re going, are you blind?
The windowpanes rattle in their housings. The anti-air guns unleash another volley. The earth rotates just a bit farther.
Beneath her fingertips, the miniature rue d’Estrées intersects the miniature rue Vauborel. Her fingers turn right; they skim doorways. One two three. Four. How many times has she done this?
Number 4: the tall, derelict bird’s nest of a house owned by her great-uncle Etienne. Where she has lived for four years. Where she kneels on the sixth floor alone, as a dozen American bombers roar toward her.
She presses inward on the tiny front door, and a hidden catch releases, and the little house lifts up and out of the model. In her hands, it’s about the size of one of her father’s cigarette boxes.
Now the bombers are so close that the floor starts to throb under her knees. Out in the hall, the crystal pendants of the chandelier suspended above the stairwell chime. Marie-Laure twists the chimney of the miniature house ninety degrees. Then she slides off three wooden panels that make up its roof, and turns it over.
A stone drops into her palm.
It’s cold. The size of a pigeon’s egg. The shape of a teardrop.
Marie-Laure clutches the tiny house in one hand and the stone in the other. The room feels flimsy, tenuous. Giant fingertips seem about to punch through its walls.
“Papa?” she whispers.

Cellar
Beneath the lobby of the Hotel of Bees, a corsair’s cellar has been hacked out of the bedrock. Behind crates and cabinets and pegboards of tools, the walls are bare granite. Three massive hand-hewn beams, hauled here from some ancient Breton forest and craned into place centuries ago by teams of horses, hold up the ceiling.
A single lightbulb casts everything in a wavering shadow.
Werner Pfennig sits on a folding chair in front of a workbench, checks his battery level, and puts on headphones. The radio is a steelcased two-way transceiver with a 1.6-meter band antenna. It enables him to communicate with a matching transceiver upstairs, with two other anti-air batteries inside the walls of the city, and with the underground garrison command across the river mouth.
The transceiver hums as it warms. A spotter reads coordinates into the headpiece, and an artilleryman repeats them back. Werner rubs his eyes. Behind him, confiscated treasures are crammed to the ceiling: rolled tapestries, grandfather clocks, armoires, and giant landscape paintings crazed with cracks. On a shelf opposite Werner sit eight or nine plaster heads, the purpose of which he cannot guess.
The massive staff sergeant Frank Volkheimer comes down the narrow wooden stairs and ducks his head beneath the beams. He smiles gently at Werner and sits in a tall-backed armchair upholstered in golden silk with his rifle across his huge thighs, where it looks like little more than a baton.
Werner says, “It’s starting?”
Volkheimer nods. He switches off his field light and blinks his strangely delicate eyelashes in the dimness.
“How long will it last?”
“Not long. We’ll be safe down here.”
The engineer, Bernd, comes last. He is a little man with mousy hair and misaligned pupils. He closes the cellar door behind him and bars it and sits halfway down the wooden staircase with a damp look on his face, fear or grit, it’s hard to say.
With the door shut, the sound of the sirens softens. Above them, the ceiling bulb flickers.
Water, thinks Werner. I forgot water.
A second anti-air battery fires from a distant corner of the city, and then the 88 upstairs goes again, stentorian, deadly, and Werner listens to the shell scream into the sky. Cascades of dust hiss out of the ceiling. Through his headphones, Werner can hear the Austrians upstairs still singing.
. . . auf d’Wulda, auf d’Wulda, da scheint d’Sunn a so gulda . . .
Volkheimer picks sleepily at a stain on his trousers. Bernd blows into his cupped hands. The transceiver crackles with wind speeds, air pressure, trajectories. Werner thinks of home: Frau Elena bent over his little shoes, double-knotting each lace. Stars wheeling past a dormer window. His little sister, Jutta, with a quilt around her shoulders and a radio earpiece trailing from her left ear.
Four stories up, the Austrians clap another shell into the smoking breech of the 88 and double-check the traverse and clamp their ears as the gun discharges, but down here Werner hears only the radio voices of his childhood. The Goddess of History looked down to earth. Only through the hottest fires can purification be achieved. He sees a forest of dying sunflowers. He sees a flock of blackbirds explode out of a tree.

Excerpted from ALL THE LIGHT WE CANNOT SEE by Anthony Doerr. Copyright © 2014 by Anthony Doerr.  Excerpted with permission by Scribner, a Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Source link parade.com
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Friday, July 8, 2016

Jenny Holzer, Born 1950, USA


Protect Protect, 2007
Oil paint on canvas


In this work by American artist Jenny Holzer, an image of a military map of Iraq has been screen-printed onto a linen canvas covered in a thin, translucent layer of violet oil paint. The map was first photocopied onto clear film, called a photo-stencil, which was used in the screen-printing process to transfer the image onto the canvas. The map features various labels, arrows and symbols. Three signs for military jets point towards the capital city of Baghdad, which lies almost at the centre of the screen print. Three labels reading ‘Protect’ frame the north, west and south sides of the map (where Iraq borders Turkey, Jordan and Saudi Arabia respectively). Around the map are various instructional labels, with the words ‘Suppress’, ‘Fix’, ‘Seize’, ‘Isolate’, ‘Shock and Awe’, ‘Exploit’ and ‘Gain Control’. (‘Shock and awe’ was a phrase used by the American government to describe its tactic of using overwhelming power during the invasion of Iraq in 2003.) These instructions suggest the defensive and offensive strategies of a military force. A box in the top right-hand corner notes details of the image’s declassification in June 2006.
This large-scale canvas is part of Holzer’s Redaction Paintings series, which the artist began in 2006. It is one of six works from this series in the ARTIST ROOMS collection. Material for this series came from declassified US government documents, particularly those concerning national security, economic policy and foreign relations. Holzer began to use US government files in her work in 2004, taking advantage of the US 1966 Freedom of Information Act, which allows any requesting member of the public to view declassified documents. Redaction refers to the censoring of information in a text, and as the title of the series of Redaction Paintings suggests, Holzer’s images were based on documents redacted by the US government before being made publicly available. Many of the source documents used in the series were made almost entirely illegible through the work of censors before their release, but this appears not to have been the case with the source image used for Protect Protect, which has only two lines of text crossed out. Holzer’s use of a photo-stencil to screen-print the image of the map allowed every element of the document to be reproduced in all its original detail.
Protect Protect makes no explicit critique of its subject matter, but by taking this map out of its military context and holding it up to public scrutiny in an art gallery, Holzer probes the boundaries between transparency and censorship, inviting viewers to reflect upon documentary evidence that offers an alternative reality to the images of war presented in the mass media, while avoiding sensationalist images or the direct representation of violence. The artist has explained her motivation to make such work: ‘As one becomes habituated to things, their intensity is dulled … in the last decades of the twentieth century, political rhetoric on all sides became so strident and inflated that obliqueness and artful understatement proved the most effective means of catching the attention of a weary public.’ (Storr 2006, p.14.)
Described by the art critic Robert Storr as ‘a verbal maze of specialised terminology, acronyms, abbreviations, rote salutations and initials’ (Storr 2006, p.8), the Redaction Paintings were the first works on canvas Holzer exhibited in her career. Before this, she was known primarily for her language-based works, involving a variety of media including posters, LED screen works and projections.
Further reading
Robert Storr, Jenny Holzer: Redaction Paintings, New York 2006.
Cathy Lebowitz, ‘Protect Us From What We Don’t Know’, Art in America, vol.94, no.9, October 2006, pp.162–6.
Jenny Holzer: Protect Protect, exhibition catalogue, Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago 2010.
Florence Ritter
January 2012
source tate.org

Thursday, July 7, 2016

Cabinet Magazine, Mapping Behavior, Tomas Matza

ssue 4 Animals Fall 2001

Mapping Behavior

Tomas Matza

 
Walter Tschinkel, a Florida State University entomology professor, has been making plaster casts of ant nests since 1982, when he first heard of the strength of orthodontic plaster. The painstaking process involves pouring the plaster down the opening as quickly as it will go in. After the plaster hardens, the excavation begins, but the nest must be taken out piece by piece. (One harvester ant nest, for example, took some five gallons of plaster and came out in 180 pieces.) Sometimes more than ten feet tall, the nests are as beautiful in structure as they are complex.
Nests dug by the Florida harvester ant under experimental conditions by 200 workers in 4 days. Photo: Charles Badland.

Tschinkel has long been interested in nest structure, and says the first cast he made of fire ants provided him an invaluable way to visualize ant colonies as they are, that is as a three-dimensional network of tunnels and chambers. Up until that point, "seeing" nest structure was limited to compiling a series of cross-sectional cuts in the soil.

"I was astounded that the nest looked different than I had imagined," he says. "I am now convinced that nest architecture is functional because it organizes the worker force and is in turn organized by ant behavior."

As an example of this "feedback loop," Tschinkel points out that workers are arranged vertically according to age: The younger workers are born deep in the nests and spend the first part of their lives tending to the queen. As they age they move closer to the surface, eventually becoming foragers. The top of the nest, which tends to be more hollowed out with chambers, "bears the mark of the older workers partly because they have a higher tendency to dig."

"Certainly the nest is the product of their behavior," he says, "but it also serves as a ladder on which they arrange themselves. This long extended vertical structure allows them to differentiate labor so that they don't all do all the same tasks in the same chambers. It's like a factory and it's all logically arranged so that the work can move from one area to the next in an efficient manner."

Nest dug by woodland ants. Photo: Charles Badland

The casts have also suggested new sets of questions, such as how ants know how to build highly detailed nests in the first place? Tschinkel has confirmed that different colonies of the same species of ant will typically make similar nests. This has prompted him to hypothesize that the "instructions" for nest construction are contained within every worker so that a single harvester ant, left to its own devices, might build the same structure as a group of its sisters. But he also says that it's equally likely that social interaction is needed to produce a normal nest.

Aside from their scientific value, these "inverse ant sculptures," made one grain at a time, also blend æsthetic form with function in ways that rival human architectural achievements. And Tschinkel is planning to approach major museums about exhibiting his casts. First, however, he plans to master a new method—the use of aluminum heated to over 700 degrees Celsius, which he figures will be more moveable, mountable, and require less piecing together after excavation.

The only apparent downside to making these ant sculptures is that abandoned nests tend to lose their form quickly, and therefore do not make very good casts. Instead, Tschinkel says, live nests will be sacrificed to make them, and perhaps appropriately a few ant bodies can be seen suspended in the tunnels they've made.

"Sometimes I call it the science of death. It's not something I like doing; it's just a reality. But the living world is neither timid nor cautious about death, so I'm just another agent of mortality, and not even a particularly severe one. You can't do biology without killing creatures. There are some questions you can do without killing, but ultimately you run up against the limit of what you can learn."
Tomas Matza is a writer based in San Francisco.
Cabinet is published by Immaterial Incorporated, a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization. Cabinet receives generous support from the Lambent Foundation, the Orphiflamme Foundation, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, the Opaline Fund, the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs, the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York State Council on the Arts, the Danielson Foundation, the Katchadourian Family Foundation, and many individuals. All our events are free, the entire content of our many sold-out issues are on our site for free, and we offer our magazine and books at prices that are considerably below cost. Please consider supporting our work by making a tax-deductible donation by visiting here.

Tuesday, July 5, 2016

Karl Mayek, Cartographer


Cartographer Karl Mayek at work, “Schweiz”, scale 1:350,000. © Orell Füssli Kartographie AG.




Section of Mayek’s shading.




Unfinished shaded relief drawn with a pencil.



Originally, a simple pencil was the only tool needed to draw shaded relief. Although pencils do not yield pure black tones, using supplementary black ink can sufficiently darken the shadows on the highest mountain peaks.

The opposite end of the tonal scale exhibits a similar problem. Pure white is not achievable with pencil because even the brightest papers contain pallid tones. As a solution, adding supplementary dabs of white paint emphasizes the brightest illuminated slopes.

The very high expense in terms of time and money of manual drawing excludes it from widespread use today. A better and faster method to obtain high quality shaded relief is by combining analytical shading with enhancements made in Photoshop.

Source is Relief Shading


History

17th Century – First Relief Shading by Gyger

Shaded reliefs are already found in early manuscript maps. However they could not be reproduced for want of usable methods. One of the most famous examples is the map “Grosse Landtafel des Kantons Zürich” (Great Land Board of the Canton of Zurich; 1664–67) by Hans Conrad Gyger, which he had worked on for about 38 years. It is a pen drawing combined with Gouache painting in a scale of approximately 1:32,000. Its relevance lies both in its accuracy and in its display of the topography in a naturalistic manner.

19th Century – Relief shading using lithography

Only with the invention of lithography in 1798 it became possible to print half-tones. It is unknown when the first relief shading was printed. Already in 1826 Franz von Hauslab discussed the pros and cons of relief shading in a report. A highlight within the range of small-scaled maps is the Atlas of Japan by Brune Hassenstein, which has been published by Perthes in Gotha in 1885–87.
Cartographers began to combine relief shading with other means of terrain display. Different suggestions using coloured altitudinal belts were submitted. In the second half ot the 19th century diagonal illumination became prevalent over vertical illumination. In 1904 Hermann Kümmerly caused a stir with his school wall map of Switzerland in the scale of 1:400,000. It deploys aerial perspective in the so-called Swiss style.
The excursion maps of the Swiss Alpine Club have been produced exclusively using stone engraving and lithography (for the shaded relief). Several maps are enhanced with a multi-coloured relief and rock representation. A few examples of these beautiful topographic maps are shown in the section Swiss Alpine Club maps.

20th Century (first half) – Wenschow process

Nearly at the same time experiments with illuminated three-dimensional relief models were undertaken to derive photographic shaded reliefs. Starting 1925 Karl Wenschow developed a mechanized relief model production process and thus became one of the most well-known representatives of this art. Because of numerous disadvantages, mainly economic ones, mechanized relief shading never became established.

20th Century (second half) – Airbrush and first analytical attempts

After World War II many reliefs are drawn by airbrush. Since the end of the 20th century new relief shadings are mostly generated using the computer by analytically computing a shaded relief from digital elevation models. Afterwards, the relief is often locally refined using a raster editor with systematic interventions. Shaded reliefs in topographic maps are mainly held in grey tones, whilst coloured variants are still often found in school atlases.

Source Relief Shading

History of Terrain Models


Model of Munich (Germany) 1:616, 186 x 200 cm, made of painted lime-tree wood, Jakob Sandtner, 1572,
Bavarian National Museum





Relief of the Bernese Oberland (Switzerland) 1:25,000, 76 x 100 cm, Xaver Imfeld, 1908,
Swiss Alpine Museum


History of terrain models

The first moulded terrain models were created for military purposes. Towns and fortifications were predominantly modelled, but also larger territories. Emperor Maximilian I. (1459–1540) for example induced the manufacturing of four primitive terrain models of the eastern Alps during 1500–1540 by P. Dax [1] and Pope Clemens VII used a cork model of Florence created by Benvenuto di Lorenzo della Volpaia and Niccolò Tribolo to plan his siege of 1529/30 [2]. Venice became the first centre of relief modelling in the middle of the 16th century. Nearly 200 models were created to depict the possessions of the Venetian Doges in the Levant. [3]In Germany, Duke Albert V of Bavaria ordered Jakob Sandtner to fashion four town reliefs between 1568 and 1574. [4]

In Paris, Sébastian Vauban (1633–1707), the famous French fortification engineer of King Louis XIV, had outstanding accurate models be made of all his constructions and their environs [5]. But also fortified cities of potential enemies and models of mountain regions were created. Both Paris and Venice in Italy were centres of terrain modelling [6]. These military models as well as topographic maps were not open to the public and of course top secret.
For a long time, topographic maps were very rare and the problem of the representation of the third dimension was not simple to manage on maps. Especially in hilly and mountainy regions it was less difficult to create a three-dimensional model of the earth’s surface than to translate it into a two-dimensional map.
Whereas today a terrain model is usually shaped after the contour lines of a map, the approach at the end of the 18th century was reverse. The greater part of the “Atlas Suisse par Meyer et Weiss”, the most accurate map of Switzerland during the first half of the 19th century, based on a terrain model of a great area of the Swiss Alps created by Joachim Eugen Müller (1752–1833). [7]
The art of terrain modelling in Switzerland reached a first peak towards the end of the 19th century. Prerequisites for this evolution were several new technical achievements like reliable contour maps of the whole country, the invention of photography, the upcoming alpinism and the strengthened scientific interest of geologists.

Between 1880 and 1940 Swiss relief modellers like Xaver Imfeld (1853–1909), Carl Meili (1871–1919) and Eduard Imhof (1895–1986) created a lot of impressive relief works.
Whereas large scale models benefitted from the use of photographs depicting even the smallest details, the production of small scale models was facilitated by the use of a pantograph. At the end of the 19th century, this method allowed milling out a model from a block of plaster, using the contour lines of a map to guide the milling cutter. Based on the pantograph, Karl Wenschow (1884–1947) developed a method to rapidly produce a large amount of accurate terrain models by pressing paper-moulds using the die stamping technique.
During World War II the Allies produced huge amounts of terrain models using different techniques. These models provided crucial information for the landing operations in North Africa and Normandy.
After  World War II a procedure using vacuum formedplastic sheets had been developed in the USA to produce cheap reliefs in large quantities. Maps of the corresponding area where printed on the plastic sheets before their forming. This technique is still used today.
In the last few years, a new technology emerged, allowing the entire model to be generated directly by a computer-controlled 3D-printer. Different printing techniques producing uncoloured terrain models exist, which are all subsumed under the label Rapid Prototyping. A technique to paint the model after forming has also been developed.

[1] Gygax, Fritz. Das topographische Relief in der Schweiz. 1937. S.14 and Grün, W.-D.. Kretschmer, Ingrid. Relief. 1986.
[2] Stempien, David C.. Terrain models as battlefield visualization training tools. 2002. p.33. and Gottschewski, Adolf (ed.). Die Lebensbeschreibungen der berühmten Architekten, Bildhauer und Maler. Die italienischen Architekten und Bildhauer des 16. Jahrhunderts. Band VII. Strassburg 1910. S.229,230. a German translation of: Vasari, Giorgio. Delle vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori. Firenze 1568.
[3] Gerola, Giuseppe. I Plastici di fortezze venete al museo storico navale di Venezia. In: Atti del reale istituto veneto di scienze. Lettere ed arti. 1930,31. p.217-221.  cited after Roux, Antoine de. et al.. Les plans en relief des places du roy. 1989. p.22.
[4] http://www.bayerisches-nationalmuseum.de/Win/d/d.htm   access 19.3.2006. and Reuther, Hans. Wesen und Wandel des Architekturmodells in Deutschland. In: Daidalos, II. Gütersloh 1987. cited after Roux, Antoine de. et al.. Les plans en relief des places du roy. 1989. p.22.
[5] Imhof, Eduard. Bildhauer der Berge. 1981. S.107.
[6] Grün, W.-D.. Kretschmer, Ingrid. Relief. 1986.
[7] See also Imhof, Eduard. Bildhauer der Berge. 1981. and Caminada, Paul. Pioniere der Alpentopographie. 2003.